The Signalman Essay Example for Free

The Signalman Essay There is an immediate sense of the unknown. The first line in the story is Halloa, below there! . This opens the story with a sense of mystery. There are two people unknown to each other, one high, and the other below. The narrator is seen as the being in the presence of light and the signalman is in the dark. This is an extreme contrast to suggesting there is a sense of difference between the two characters. The description of the railway cutting is extremely dark. His past was in a solitary and dismal place as I ever saw. On either side a dripping wet wall of jagged stone, excluding all view but a strip of sky. The description describes a very depressing place, almost reminding the reader of Hell, or something equivalent. This gives the reader the feeling of a bad place, which builds up tension, suspense, and suspicion, as to what will happen in this horrible cutting. We are also given a vivid description of the Signalmans character. As the story continues, we see the Signalmans character develop into a professional man. We find out he is a very educated man, but ran wild at university, thus being expelled. A student of natural philosophy, and attended lectures, but had run wild, misused his opportunities, gone down and never risen again. We also find out he has other qualities, which are being reliable and dutiful. We see this when he stops in mid-sentence in order to carry out his duties on the line. I observed him to be remarkably exact and vigilant, breaking of his discourse at a syllable, and remaining until what he had to do was done This leads us to believe the Narrator became impressed and interested by the Signalman. Through the Signalmans haunting we can also see other sides of him. We see he has a lot of fear, of the haunting. We can especially see this in his language in following his long conversation with the visitor, What is the danger? Where is the danger? . These short sharp sentences show the fear in the signalman. We could also see this when the traveller introduces himself, as this is where we get the first hints of the Signalmans instability and fear. He believes he has seen the traveller before and when asked where He pointed to the red light he had looked at, there. We know the Signalman is showing fear at this point as he speaks in a low voice. The language used by Dickens is suitably old fashioned, which suits it as nowadays the most popular ghost stories were written in the 19th century, Though in a subordinate position, still he held a most important trust, and would I like to stake my own life on the chances of his continuing to execute it with precision? As you can see, the style of writing is quite complicated and written in the familiar old fashioned Victorian style. Dickens use of adjectives to create a menacing and supernatural atmosphere is typical of ghost stories. The cutting which is overshadowed by trees leaving little light to shine through is described as a dungeon suggesting a claustrophobic and imprisoned atmosphere which is typical of a ghost story. Rarely are ghost stories set in wide sprawling open spaces and this is no exception. Dickens describes the tunnel as having a gloomy entrance and the actual tunnel itself being black and the signal box as dismal. But he then goes onto describe the mouth of the tunnel as described as having a barbarous, depressing and forbidding air and then the narrator feels as though he had left the natural world like he had entered hell. Kasim Hassan Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Miscellaneous section.

The Benefits of Java

The Benefits of Java JAVA INCLUDES A LIBRARY OF CLASSES AND INTERFACES: The Java platform includes an extensive class library so that programmers can use already existing classes, as it is, create subclasses to modify existing classes, or implement interfaces to augment the capabilities of classes. Both classes and interfaces contain data members (fields) and functions (methods), but there are major differences. In a class, fields may be either variable or constant, and methods are fully implemented. To use an interface, a programmer defines a class, declares that it implements the Interface, and then implements all the methods in that interface as part of the class. These methods are implemented in a way that is appropriate for the class in which the methods are being used. Interfaces let one add functionality to a class and give a great deal of flexibility in doing it. A package is a collection of related Java classes and interfaces. The following list, however not complete, gives example of some Java packages and what they cover. Java.lang: The basic classes. This package is so basic that it automatically is included in any Java program. It includes classes that intercepts with numeric, strings, objects, runtime, security, and threads. Java.io: Package that includes classes managing reading data in input streams and writing data into output streams. Java.util: Miscellaneous utility classes, including generic data structures, bit sets, time, date, the string manipulation, random number generation, system properties, notification and enumeration of data structures. Java.net: Classes for network support. Java.awt: Classes that manage user interface components such as windows, dialog boxes, buttons, checkboxes, lists, menus, scrollbars, and text fields, the â€Å"AWT† stands for Abstract Window Toolkit. Java.awt.image: Classes for managing image data, including color models, dropping color flittering, setting pixel values, and grabbing snapshots. Java.applet: The Applet class, which provides the ability to write applets, this package also includes several interfaces that connect an applet to its documents and to its document. Java.sql: The JDBC API, classes and interfaces that access databases and send SQL Statements. The first three packages listed, java.lang, java.io and java.util form the basis, they are basic classes and interfaces for general-purpose programming. Java development kit version1.1 added some new packages, with JDBC being one of them. Other new packages include such thing as Remote Method Invocation, Security and Java Beans, the new API for creating reusable components. In Java, packages serve as the foundation for building other packages, as discussed in the following section. JAVA IS EXTENSIBLE: A big plus for Java is the fact it can be extended. It was purposely written to be lean with the emphasis on doing what it does very well, instead of trying to do everything from the beginning, it was return so that extending it is very simple. The JDBC API, the java.sql package, is one example upon which extensions are being built. In addition to extensions there are also main tools being developed to make existing capabilities easier to use. For example, there is already a tool that greatly Simplifies creating and laying out Graphical User Interfaces such as menus, Dialog boxes and buttons. SECURITY: It is important that a programmer not be able to write subversive code for Applications or applets. This is especially true with the Internet being used more and more extensively for services such as electronic commerce and electronic delivery of software and multimedia content. The Java platform builds in security in four ways. The way memory is Allocated and laid out: In Java an object’s location in memory is not determined until The runtime, as opposed to C and C++, where the compiler makes memory layout Decisions. As the result, a programmer cannot look at a class definition and figure out how it might be laid out in memory. Also since, Java has no pointers, a programmer cannot forge pointers to memory. The way incoming code is checked: The Java virtual machine doesn’t trust any incoming code and subjects it to what is called throughte code verification. The throughte code Verifier, part of the virtual machine, checks that the format of incoming code is correct incoming code doesn’t forge pointers, it doesn’t violate access restrictions, it accesses objects what they are. The way classes are loaded: The Java throughte code loader, another part of the virtual machine, whether classes loaded during program execution are local or from across a network. Imported classes cannot be substituted for built in classes, and built in classes cannot accidentally reference classes brought in over a network. The way access is restricted for untested code: The Java security manager allows user to restrict untested Java applets so that they cannot access the local network, files and other resources. JAVA PERFORMS WELL: Java performance is better than one might expect. Java has many advantages, such as having built in security and being interpreted as well as compiled, do have a cost attached to them. As a result, Java has done quite respectably in performance tests. Its performance numbers for interpreting throughte codes are usually more than adequate to run interactive graphical end user applications. For situations that require unusually high performance, throughte codes can be translated on the fly, generating the final machine code for the particular CPU on which the application is running at run time. High level interpreted scripting language generally offer great portability and fast prototyping but poor performance. Low level compiled language like C and C++ offer great performance but require large amounts of time for writing and debugging code because of problems with areas such as memory management, pointers and multiple inheritance. Java offers good performance with the advantages of high level languages but without the disadvantages of C and C++. JAVA IS ROBUST: The multi platformed environment of the WEB places extraordinary demands on a program, because it must execute reliably in a variety of systems. Thus the ability to create robust programs was given a high priority in the design of Java. To gain reliability, Java restricts you in a few key areas to force you to find your mistakes early in program developments. At the same time, Java frees you from having to worry about many of the most common cause of programming errors. Because Java is strictly typed language, it checks your code at compile time. However, it also checks your code at run time. In fact, many hard to track down bugs that often turn up in hard to reproduce runtime situations are simply impossible to create in Java. Knowing that what you have written will behave in a predictable way under diverse conditions is a key feature of Java to understand how Java robust. For example in C/C++ the programmer must manually allocate and free all dynamic memory. This sometimes leads to problems. For example some programmers some times forget the free memory that has been previously allocated. JAVA SCALES WELL: Java platform is designed to scale well, from portable consumer electronic devices to powerful desktop and server machines. As a result, Java accommodates the need for low storage and for low bandwidth transmission over the Internet. In addition the Java operating system offers a standalone Java platform that eliminates host operating system overhead while still supporting the full Java platform. API makes Java ideal for low cost network computers whose sole purpose is to access the Internet. JAVA IS MULTITHREADED: Multithreading is simply the ability of a program to do more than one thing at a time. For example an application could be faxing a document at the same time it is printing another document. Or a program could process new inventory figures while it sustains a feed for current prices. JAVA IS IMPORTANT TO THE INTERNET: The Internet helped catapult Java to the forefront of programming and Java in turn has a profound effect on the Internet. The reason is simple. Java expands the universe of objects that can move about freely in cyberspace. In a network, there are two broad categories of objects transmitted between the server, your personal computer, passive info and dynamic, active programs. For example, when you read your e-mail, you are viewing passive data. Even when you download a program, the program’s code is still only passive data until you execute it. However, there is a second type of object that can be transmitted to your computer, a dynamic, self executing program. Such a program would be an active agent on the client computer, yet it would be initiated through the server. As desirable as dynamic, networked programs are, they also current serious problems in the areas of security and portability. Prior to Java cyberspace was effectively closed to half the entities that now live the re. Java addresses these concerns and doing so, has opened the door to an exiting a new form of program.

The Truth of Ivanhoe :: Ivanhoe Essays

The Truth of Ivanhoe Is Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe a true representation of the Norman-Saxon feud? Yes, and through a comparison of statements and ideas from Ivanhoe, Arthur and the Anglo Saxon Wars, The Anglo Saxons, Scott, and England in Literature: America Reads it will be proven that the Norman-Saxon feud was accurately depicted by Scott in Ivanhoe. In Ivanhoe, Prince John attempts to take over England while his brother, King Richard, is away fighting the Crusades. In the book there are basically two sides to this struggle for control of England, the Normans and the Saxons. Prince John and his followers make up the Normans, while the Saxons are led by the title character Wilfred of Ivanhoe. The Saxons try to prevent Prince John from stealing the throne. The story occurs during the third crusade, but the feud between the Normans and the Saxons in 1066 well before this time. In 1066 at the Battle of Hastings, the Normans, led by William I, defeated the Saxons and took over control of England. Before this the Saxons had ruled England for 600 years. During the battle both sides fought strongly. It was a bloody war and many people died. The Saxons had fought and had won 21 wars to preserve their reign of England before their loss at Hastings. The Normans were from the English hated-France, so they didn’t have much of a chance of being liked by the Saxons. What little chance the Normans did have was destroyed by William. He established a new ruling class that was all Norman. He also took the land belonging to 5,000-6,000 Saxon nobles and gave it to 180 Normans who supported him. "The laws which William made were oppressive and severe and the taxes were heavy." Saxons commonly referred to William as a tyrant because of this. The Normans and Saxons were further separated through language. The Normans spoke French, the Saxons spoke English, and both groups commonly refused to speak the other’s language. There was one instance in Ivanhoe where two Normans were guests at a Saxon castle. The Saxons refused to speak French, and the Normans refused to speak English. In the end both groups spoke their native language only, even though they were fluent in both French and English. Another example of the Norman-Saxon feud from Ivanhoe occurred in the first several pages. Two Saxon servants came upon two Normans in the woods, and the Normans asked for directions to the nearest castle.

MTV: Music Mainstream Essay -- Entertainment Television Papers

Invention of MTV MTV pioneered the music video, music television industry. The music video genre was taking its first steps in the 60s and 70s. MTV seized upon the idea, linked it with cable television and created a media icon. MTV has been the launching pad for the careers of stars for two decades. On the MTV model, other music television programs adopted the format such as BET, VH-1, and the Nashville Network. MTV has continuously pushed the envelope in music and social issues. Their success deserves to be studied. The story of the founding of MTV has valuable lessons for the media industry. This is a brief look at who did it, how they accomplished it and their adaptations to the changing nuances of the industry. Linking music and the video is similar to the linking of sound and films in the early 20th century. It changed the way Rock and Roll music did business. Rock groups and soloists no longer had to sound good; they now had to look good close up. Professionals in video art and technology joined with professionals in the sound recording industry. The concept of the video jockey, VJ evolved. The term â€Å"yeah, I saw that song† was born. Prior to the invention and distribution of cable television, rock and roll music was flourishing. The few television networks limited the convergence of music and television in existence at the time. The music video was an experiment and the resources the networks could provide limited it. Music and television usually converged on Saturdays with programs like â€Å"the Monkeys†, and the cartoon â€Å"the Beatles† in the morning, â€Å"American Bandstand† in the early afternoon, â€Å"Soul Train† in the late afternoon, and â€Å"Midnight Special† or â€Å"Don Kirshner’s Rock Concert† Saturday night.... ...deos, all the time†. Who knows what will happen in the future of music television. Either way MTV will find a way to dominate popular culture and help young kids fit into the society that MTV keeps creating and recreating. Work Cited Absolute TRL. Show Index. 5 November 2001. http://absolutetrl.net/showinfo/index.html Denisoff, Serge R. Inside MTV. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1988. Waits, Jennifer C. (1997). Fantastic Reality: The Blurring of Leisure and Work Space On MTV’S The Real World and Road Rules. Bowling Green State University: Bowling Green, OH. http://www.mtv.com http://www.mtvi.com http://www.rockthevote.org http://www.CKY2K.net â€Å"Rockin in Time 4th Edition† David P. Szatmary, Prentis Hall INC. 2000. â€Å"The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Rock† Carlton Books Limited, 1993, Michael Heatley Editor, p. 321-22.

The Urban Legend of Tommy Hilfiger :: essays research papers fc

The Truth about the Rumor of Tommy Hilfiger A big controversy happened, the well-known Fashion Designer Tommy Hilfiger was on the Oprah show. She asked him if it was true if he said he did not make clothes for Blacks and Asians, his clothes were intended for upper class White people. When he admitted he said those things, she asked him to leave. This E-Mail is an Urban Legend. Juicy Emails like these are simply for entertainment purposes only and should not be taken seriously. Like junk mail it should be emptied into the recycle bin. People assume if an E-mail is sent to them or if a friend mentioned the incident then it must be true. How could someone write something so mean and cruel and spread it through emails? Thomas Craughwell explains that â€Å"fear, paranoia, envy and suspicion of unfamiliar† are reasons why urban legends such as Tommy Hilfiger are passed around (Craughwell 10). People read newspapers such as the Inquirer and read junk E-mails at work to make the day go by. Richard Roeper describes people as â€Å"today’s information consumer†, who are â€Å"savvy, jaded and cynical† (Roeper 10). It’s no secret that people can be gullible when it comes to interesting news. Roper states that people are as â€Å"willing as ever to believe stories that happened to best friend’s brother’s accountant† (Roper 11). People have gotten too lazy to look up information for themselves and look for quick fixes, instead of facts. The Tommy Hilfiger Rumor has all of the signs of the urban legend. As Defined by Craughwell â€Å"urban legends are usually passed by word of mouth and by E-mail†. Urban legends have many variations (Craughwell 9,13). David Emery from About.com has two of the most common variations of the E-mail in his article. Before there were any rumors of him on the Oprah Show, It was a â€Å"news article† in a â€Å"Philippian tabloid in 1996† as Barbara Mikkelson explains in her article. According to Barbara Mikkelson, the rumor was altered again with him being on the CNN style show with Elsa Klensch . In this rumor he did not comment on black people. He commented about â€Å"Asian people not looking right in the clothes† (Barbara Mikkelson). Although the rumors are being shown to be not true, they are still being passed around to this day (David Emery). People who are in the know about rumors made inquiries to the Anti Defamation League.

Bloodlines Chapter Eleven

BEFORE CLASS THE NEXT DAY, I left a message with someone at the Alchemists' office, telling them I needed â€Å"Mr. and Mrs. Melrose† to send a note excusing Jill from PE – or at least from outdoor activities. I hoped they'd move quickly on this. The Alchemists were fast when they wanted to be, but they sometimes had odd ideas of what took priority. I hoped they didn't have the same attitude toward Jill's misery as Keith did. But I knew not to expect any action that day, so Jill had to suffer through another PE class – and I had to suffer through watching her suffer. What was really terrible was that Jill didn't whine or try to get out of anything. She didn't even show any sign of last night's breakdown. She came in with determination and optimism, as though maybe this would be the day the sun wouldn't affect her. Yet, before long, she began to wane just as she had last time. She looked sick and tired, and my own performance faltered a little because I kept watching her, afraid she'd pass out. Micah was the saving grace. Once again, he fearlessly switched teams – this time from the very start of class. He covered for her just as he had last time, allowing her to escape the notice of teacher and classmates – well, except for Laurel, who seemed to notice – and get annoyed by – everything he did. Her eyes flicked angrily between him and Jill, and she kept flinging her hair over her shoulder to get his attention. I was a little amused to note that Micah's attention remained solely on keeping the ball away from Jill. Micah also jumped immediately to her side when class ended and had a water bottle ready, which she accepted gratefully. I was grateful too, but seeing his concern for her dredged up all my old worries. She was good to her word, however. She returned his attentions in a friendly way, but you definitely couldn't call it flirting. He made no secret of his intentions, though, and I still worried that it would be better if she didn't have to deal with them. I'd meant it when I said I trusted her, but I couldn't help but think it'd be a lot easier on everyone if he laid off in his advances. This would require A Talk. Dreading what I had to do, I caught up with Micah outside the locker rooms. We were both waiting for Jill to finish up, and I took advantage of the alone time with him. â€Å"Hey, Micah,† I said, â€Å"I need to talk to you†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Hey,† he returned brightly. His blue eyes were wide and excited. â€Å"I had an idea I wanted to run past you. If you guys aren't able to get a note for her, maybe you could see about getting her schedule switched around? If she took PE first period, it wouldn't be nearly as hot out yet. Maybe it wouldn't be as hard on her. I mean, she seems like she'd like to participate in some of this stuff.† â€Å"She would,† I said slowly. â€Å"And that's a really good idea.† â€Å"I know some people who work in the office. I'll ask them to run some options and see if it's even possible with the rest of her classes.† He faked a pout. â€Å"I'll be sad not to have her in class, but it'd be worth it to know she's not so miserable.† â€Å"Yeah,† I agreed weakly, suddenly feeling at a loss. He really had come up with a good idea. He was even unselfish enough to give up the chance to be with her in order to promote the greater good. How could I have â€Å"the talk† with him now? How could I suddenly say, â€Å"Leave my sister alone,† when he was going out of his way to be so nice? I was as bad as Eddie, avoiding confrontation with Micah. This guy was too likable for his own good. Before I could manage a response, Micah then went off in an unexpected direction. â€Å"You really should get her to a doctor, though. I don't think she has a sun allergy.† â€Å"Oh?† I asked in surprise. â€Å"Have you not been watching her suffer through class each day?† â€Å"No, no, believe me, she's definitely got an issue with the sun,† he assured me quickly. â€Å"But she might be misdiagnosed. I read up on sun allergies, and people usually get rashes with them. This overall weakness she gets†¦ I don't know. I think it might be something else.† Oh no. â€Å"Like what?† â€Å"I don't know,† he mused. â€Å"But I'll keep researching theories and let you know.† Wonderful. PE also gave me my first glimpse at one of Amberwood's metallic tattoos in action. Greg Slade was impossible not to watch during class, and I wasn't the only one who got distracted. Just as Kristin and Julia had said, he really was faster and stronger. He made dives no one else was quick enough to react to. When he hit the ball, it was a wonder we didn't hear a sonic boom shortly thereafter. This earned him praise at first, but soon, I noticed something. There was a sloppy edge to his game. He was filled with ability, yes, but sometimes it was unfocused. Those powerful hits didn't always help because he'd blast the ball out of bounds. And in running to make a shot, he rarely considered those around him. When a guy from my English class got knocked down flat on his back, simply for being in the path of Slade and the ball, Miss Carson stopped the game and roared her displeasure about Slade's aggression. He took it in with a sulky smirk. â€Å"Too bad Eddie's not in this class,† Jill said afterward. â€Å"He'd be a total match for Slade.† â€Å"Maybe it's better no one notices,† I remarked. Eddie, from what I'd heard, was already a shining star in his PE class. It was part of a dhampir's natural athleticism, and I knew he was actually working hard not to be too good at everything. I checked in with Ms. Terwilliger after PE, happy to find my teacher fully stocked with coffee of her own. I spent most of the period going through the book and taking notes on my laptop. Partway through, she came over to check my work. â€Å"You're very organized,† she said, looking over my shoulder. â€Å"Headings and subheadings and sub-subheadings.† â€Å"Thank you,† I said. Jared Sage had been very particular in teaching his children research skills. Ms. Terwilliger took a sip of coffee and continued reading the screen. â€Å"You didn't list the ritual and spell steps,† she pointed out moments later. â€Å"You just summarize them in a couple lines.† Well, yes, that was the point of note-taking. â€Å"I cite all the page numbers,† I said. â€Å"If you need to check the actual components, there's an easy reference.† â€Å"No†¦ go back and put all the steps and ingredients in your notes. I want to be able to have them all in one place.† You do have them in one place, I wanted to say. In the book. Notes were about condensing the material, not retyping the original text word for word. But Ms. Terwilliger had already wandered away, staring at her filing cabinet absentmindedly as she muttered to herself about a misplaced folder. With a sigh, I flipped back to the beginning of the book, trying not to think about how this was going to set me back. At least I was only doing this for credit and not a grade. I stayed past the late bell in an effort to make up some lost time. When I got back to my room, I had to wake up Jill, who was sound asleep after her exhausting day. â€Å"Good news,† I told her as she blinked at me with sleepy eyes. â€Å"It's feeding day.† Definitely words I never thought I'd say. I also didn't think I'd be excited for it. And sure, I certainly wasn't thrilled about the idea of Jill biting into Dorothy's neck. I was, however, feeling pretty bad for Jill and was glad she'd get some nourishment. Being on such a limited supply of blood had to make things doubly hard for her. We met up with Eddie downstairs when it was time to go. He looked Jill over worriedly. â€Å"Are you okay?† â€Å"I'm fine,† she said with a smile. She looked nowhere near as bad as she had earlier. I shuddered to think what Eddie would've done if he'd actually been in our class and seen her at her worst. â€Å"Why is this still going on?† he asked me. â€Å"Weren't you going to talk to Keith?† â€Å"We're a little delayed,† I said evasively, leading them to where Latte was parked in the student lot. â€Å"We'll make it happen.† If the Alchemists didn't come through with the note, I was going to try to act on Micah's suggestion and get her switched into morning PE. â€Å"We know you will,† said Jill. I could just barely pick out the sympathy in her voice, reminding me that she knew about my fight with Keith yesterday. I hoped she wouldn't mention it in front of Eddie and was saved when she switched to a more random and surprising topic. â€Å"Do you think we can pick up some pizza along the way? Adrian doesn't want any more of Dorothy's cooking.† â€Å"How terrible for him,† remarked Eddie, getting into the backseat and letting Jill ride shotgun. â€Å"Having a personal chef on hand to make him whatever he wants. I don't know how he gets by.† I laughed, but Jill seemed outraged on Adrian's behalf. â€Å"It's not the same! She cooks really super-gourmet stuff.† â€Å"Still waiting for the problem,† said Eddie. â€Å"She tries to also make it really healthy. She says it's better for Clarence. So, there's never any salt and pepper or butter.† Jeez, how often did she and Adrian talk? â€Å"There's no flavor or anything. It's driving him crazy.† â€Å"Everything seems to be driving him crazy,† I remarked, remembering his plea for new lodging. â€Å"And he can't have it too bad. Didn't he go to LA last night?† Jill's only answer was a frown. Nonetheless, I had a feeling we'd be hanging out at Clarence's for a while, and I personally didn't want to eat anything prepared in that house. So, it was more for selfish reasons that I agreed to stop at a takeout place en route and buy a few pizzas. Adrian's face was radiant when we entered the sitting room, which – pool games aside – seemed to be his primary hangout at Clarence's. â€Å"Jailbait,† he declared, leaping up. â€Å"You're a saint. A goddess, even.† â€Å"Hey,† I said, â€Å"I'm the one who paid for them.† Adrian carried off one of the boxes to the couch, much to Dorothy's dismay. She hurried off muttering about plates and napkins. Adrian gave me a conciliatory nod. â€Å"You're okay too, Sage,† he said. â€Å"Well, well, what have we here?† Clarence came tottering into the room. I hadn't noticed before, but he used a cane to get around. It had a crystal snake head on top, which was both impressive and scary. Just the kind of thing you'd picture for an old vampire. â€Å"Looks like a party.† Lee was with him, greeting us with smiles and nods. His eyes lingered briefly on Jill, and he made a point of sitting near her – but not too near. Jill perked up more than she had in days. Everyone was just starting to dive into the pizza when Dorothy appeared in the doorway with a new guest. I felt my eyes widen. It was Keith. â€Å"What are you doing here?† I asked, keeping my voice neutral. He winked. â€Å"Came to check in on everybody and make sure all's well. That's my job – to look after everyone.† Keith was chipper and friendly as he helped himself to the pizza, with no indication of the fight we'd gotten into last time. He smiled and talked to everyone as though they were all best friends, leaving me totally bewildered. No one else seemed to think anything odd about his behavior – but then, why would they? None of them had my history with Keith. No – that wasn't quite true. Despite being deep in conversation with Eddie, Adrian paused to give me a curious look, silently asking about yesterday's fight. He glanced at Keith and then back to me. I shrugged helplessly, letting him know I was just as confused by the change of heart. Maybe Keith regretted his outburst from yesterday. Of course, that would've been much easier to accept if it had come with, oh, an apology. I nibbled on a piece of cheese pizza, but mostly I observed the others. Jill was animatedly recounting her first couple of days to Adrian, noticeably leaving out any of the negative parts. He listened to her indulgently, nodding and interjecting with occasional witty quips. Some of the stuff she told him was pretty basic, and I was surprised it hadn't come up in their phone conversations. Maybe he just had so much to say at those times that there'd been no chance for her. As it was, he made no mention of his boredom or other grievances. Clarence occasionally chatted with Eddie and Lee, but his eyes constantly strayed to Jill. There was a wistful look in his gaze, and I remembered that his niece had only been a little older than Jill. I wondered if perhaps part of the reason he'd been so willing to take us all on was in an effort to reclaim some part of the family life that had been lost to him. Keith had sat down near me, at first making me uncomfortable but then later giving me a reason to pick his brain. Seeing the others engaged in conversation, I asked him softly, â€Å"Have you ever heard of knockoff Alchemist tattoos making it into the general population?† He gave me a startled look in return. â€Å"I don't even know what that means.† â€Å"At Amberwood, there's this trend. There's apparently someplace in town that gives metallic tattoos, and they have special properties – kind of like ours. Some just kind of give off a high. Others kind of have a steroid effect.† He frowned. â€Å"They're not bound with gold, are they?† â€Å"No. Silver and copper. So, they don't last. Probably so the people giving them can make more money.† â€Å"But they can't be ours, then,† he argued. â€Å"We haven't used those metals for tattoos in centuries.† â€Å"Yeah, but someone may be using Alchemist technology to create these.† â€Å"Just to get people high?† he asked. â€Å"I wouldn't even know how you'd go about that with metallic agents.† â€Å"I have some ideas,† I said. â€Å"And let me guess. They involve narcotic mixtures.† When I nodded, he sighed and gave me a look like I was ten years old. â€Å"Sydney, it's most likely someone's found a crude tattooing method that's like ours but has no connection. If so, there's nothing we can do about it. Drugs happen. Bad things happen. If it isn't mixed with Alchemist business, then it isn't our business.† â€Å"But what if it is connected to Alchemist business?† I asked. He groaned. â€Å"See? This is why I was worried about you coming, this tendency you have of running off with tangents and wild theories.† â€Å"I don't – â€Å" â€Å"Please don't embarrass me,† he hissed, casting a glance at the others. â€Å"Not with them, not with our superiors.† His rebuke silenced me, mostly from surprise. What did he mean about this â€Å"tendency† I had? Was he actually suggesting he had made some deep psychological analysis of me years ago? The idea that I would embarrass him was ludicrous†¦ and yet his words planted a seed of doubt in me. Maybe the tattoos at Amberwood were just an unrelated fad. â€Å"How's PE?† Adrian's words dragged me from my own thoughts. He was still getting the summary of school from Jill. She made a face at the question. â€Å"Not great,† she admitted, giving a recap of some of the worse moments. Eddie shot me a meaningful look, similar to the one from earlier. â€Å"You can't go on like that,† exclaimed Lee. â€Å"The sun around here's brutal.† â€Å"I agree,† said Keith, of all people. â€Å"Sydney, why didn't you tell me how bad it was?† I think my jaw hit the floor. â€Å"I did! That's why I was trying to get you to contact the school.† â€Å"You didn't really give me the whole story.† He flashed one of his sugary smiles at Jill. â€Å"Don't worry. I'll take care of this for you. I'll get in touch with school officials – and the Alchemists.† â€Å"I already talked to them,† I argued. But I might as well have not said anything. Keith had already switched topics and was talking to Clarence about something irrelevant. Where had this about-face come from? Yesterday, Jill's discomfort had been low priority. Today, Keith was her knight in shining armor. And in the process, he was suggesting that I was the one who'd screwed up. That's his plan, I realized. He doesn't want me here. He never has. And then something even worse occurred to me. He's going to use this to start building a case against me. Across the room, Adrian caught my eye again. He knew. He'd been eavesdropping when I talked to Keith in the driveway. Adrian started to speak, and I knew he was going to call Keith out on his lie. It was gallant but not what I wanted. I would deal with Keith myself. â€Å"How was LA?† I asked quickly before Adrian had a chance to say anything. He looked at me curiously, no doubt wondering why I wouldn't let him be a witness to my case. â€Å"You went there with Lee last night, right?† Adrian looked confused, but a grin smoothed over his face. â€Å"Yeah,† he said at last. â€Å"It was great. Lee showed me college life.† Lee laughed. â€Å"I wouldn't go that far. I don't know where you were half the night.† Adrian got this look on his face that was somehow charming but made me want to slap him at the same time. â€Å"We parted ways. I was getting to know some of the other Moroi in the area.† Even Eddie couldn't stay silent at that. â€Å"Oh, is that what you call it?† Jill abruptly stood up. â€Å"I'm going to get my blood now. Is that okay?† There was a moment of awkward silence, largely because I don't think anyone really knew who she was asking permission from. â€Å"Of course, my dear,† said Clarence, stepping into his role as host. â€Å"I believe Dorothy's in the kitchen.† Jill gave a curt nod and hurried out of the room. The rest of us exchanged puzzled glances. â€Å"Is something wrong?† asked Lee, looking worried. â€Å"Should I†¦ should I go talk to her?† â€Å"She's still just stressed,† I said, not daring to mention the screaming or crying episodes. â€Å"I thought of something that might be fun for her†¦ for all of us to do,† he said tentatively. He glanced around and then settled his gaze on me. I guess I was the designated mother here. â€Å"If you think it's okay. I mean†¦ it's kind of silly, but I thought we could go mini-golfing in the evening. They've got all these fountains and pools on the course. She's a water user, right? She must be missing it out here.† â€Å"She does,† said Eddie, frowning. â€Å"She mentioned it yesterday.† I shivered. Keith had been texting on his phone and froze. No matter our differences, we still shared a core of similar training, and both of us were uneasy with the idea of Moroi magic. â€Å"She'd probably like that a lot,† said Adrian. He sounded reluctant to admit it. I think he was still uneasy with the idea of Lee being interested in Jill, no matter how friendly the two guys were. Lee's idea was both innocent and conscientious. Hard to find fault with. Lee tilted his head thoughtfully. â€Å"You have a later curfew on the weekends, right? Do you want to go tonight?† It was Friday, granting us an extra hour extension at our dorm. â€Å"I'm game,† said Adrian. â€Å"Literally and figuratively.† â€Å"If Jill's there, I'm there,† said Eddie. They looked at me. I was trapped. I wanted to go back and catch up on homework. Saying that sounded pathetic, though, and I supposed I had to represent as Jill's only female chaperone. Besides, I reminded myself, this assignment wasn't about me and my academics, no matter how much I pretended it was. It was about Jill. â€Å"I can go,† I said slowly. Thinking that this sounded very much like fraternizing with vampires, I glanced uneasily at Keith. He'd gone back to texting now that magic wasn't being discussed. â€Å"Keith?† I asked by way of permission. He looked up. â€Å"Huh? Oh, I can't go. I have to be somewhere.† I tried not to grimace. He'd misread me and thought I was inviting him. On the bright side, he also wasn't objecting to the rest of us going. â€Å"Ah, how nice,† said Clarence. â€Å"An outing for you young people. Perhaps you'll share a glass of wine with me first?† Dorothy was just entering with a bottle of red wine, Jill trailing behind her. Clarence smiled at Adrian. â€Å"I know you'd like a glass.† Adrian's expression said he most definitely would. Instead, Adrian took a deep breath and shook his head. â€Å"I'd better not.† â€Å"You should,† said Jill gently. Even after a short drink of blood, she looked full of life and energy. â€Å"Can't,† he said. â€Å"It's the weekend,† she told him. â€Å"It's not that big of a deal. Especially if you're careful.† The two locked gazes and then at last, he said, â€Å"All right. Pour me a glass.† â€Å"Pour me one too, please,† said Keith. â€Å"Really?† I asked him. â€Å"I didn't know you drank.† â€Å"I'm twenty-one,† he countered. Adrian accepted his from Dorothy. â€Å"Somehow, I'm thinking that's not Sage's concern. I thought Alchemists avoided alcohol the same way they do primary colors.† I glanced down. I was wearing gray. Keith was wearing brown. â€Å"One glass won't hurt,† said Keith. I didn't argue with him. It wasn't my place to babysit Keith. And the Alchemists didn't have rules against drinking per se. We had strong religious beliefs about what it meant to live a good and pure lifestyle, and drinking was generally looked down upon. Was it forbidden? No. It was a custom, one I considered important. If he didn't, I guessed that was his choice. Keith was just bringing the glass to his lips when Adrian said, â€Å"Mmm. O positive, my favorite.† Keith sprayed out the wine he'd just drunk and promptly started coughing. I was relieved that none got on me. Jill burst into giggles, and Clarence stared at his glass wonderingly. â€Å"Is it? I thought it was a cabernet sauvignon.† â€Å"So it is,† said Adrian, straight-faced. â€Å"My mistake.† Keith gave Adrian a tight smile, like he too thought it was a funny joke, but I wasn't fooled. Keith was mad at having been mocked, and no matter how friendly he pretended to be with everyone, his views against vampires and dhampirs were as harsh as they'd ever been. Of course, Adrian probably wasn't helping matters any. I thought it was pretty funny, honestly, and worked to hide my smile so that Keith wouldn't get mad at me again. It was hard to do because shortly thereafter, Adrian flashed me a secret, knowing smile that seemed to say, That's payback for earlier. Eddie glanced at Jill. â€Å"I'm glad you got your blood today. I know you've been wanting to learn some defense moves, but I wanted to wait until you were back up to strength.† Jill lit up. â€Å"Can we do it tomorrow?† â€Å"Of course,† he said, looking nearly as delighted by this as she did. Keith frowned. â€Å"Why should she learn to fight when she's got you around?† Eddie shrugged. â€Å"Because she wants to, and she should have every edge she can get.† He didn't specifically mention the attempts on her life – not in front of Lee and Clarence – but the rest of us understood. â€Å"I thought Moroi weren't good at fighting, though,† said Keith. â€Å"Mostly because they haven't trained for it. They aren't as strong as us, sure, but their reflexes are better than yours,† explained Eddie. â€Å"It's just a matter of learning the skills and having a good teacher.† â€Å"Like you?† I teased. â€Å"I'm not bad,† he said modestly. â€Å"I can train anyone who wants to learn.† He elbowed Adrian, who was reaching for the wine and a refill. â€Å"Even this guy.† â€Å"No, thank you,† said Adrian. â€Å"These hands don't sully themselves with fighting.† â€Å"Or with manual labor,† I remarked, recalling past comments of his. â€Å"Exactly,† he said. â€Å"But maybe you should have Castile show you how to throw a punch, Sage. It might come in handy. Seems like a skill a plucky young woman like yourself should possess.† â€Å"Well, thanks for the vote of confidence, but I'm not really sure when I'd need it,† I said. â€Å"Of course she needs to learn!† Clarence's exclamation caught all of us by surprise. I'd actually thought he was dozing off since he'd had his eyes closed moments ago. But now, he was leaning forward with a zealous expression. I cringed under the intensity of his stare. â€Å"You must learn to protect yourself!† He pointed at me, then moved on to Jill. â€Å"And you. Promise me you'll learn to defend yourself. Promise me.† Jill's light green eyes went wide with shock. She tried to give him a reassuring smile, though it was tinged with uneasiness. â€Å"Of course, Mr. Donahue. I'm trying to. And until then, I've got Eddie to protect me from Strigoi.† â€Å"Not Strigoi!† His voice dropped to a whisper. â€Å"The vampire hunters.† None of us said anything. Lee looked mortified. Clarence squeezed his wineglass so tightly that I worried it would break. â€Å"No one talked about this back then – about defending ourselves. Maybe if Tamara had learned something, she wouldn't have been killed. It's not too late for you – for either of you.† â€Å"Dad, we've been over this,† said Lee. Clarence ignored him. The old man's gaze flicked between me and Jill, and I wondered if he even knew I was human. Or maybe it didn't matter. Maybe he just had a slightly deranged protective instinct toward all girls the same age as Tamara. I kind of expected Keith to tactlessly point out that there were no such things as vampire hunters, but he was uncharacteristically quiet. Eddie was the one who finally spoke, his words soothing and kind. He so often gave off the impression of a do-or-die warrior that it was surprising to realize he was actually very compassionate. â€Å"Don't worry,† said Eddie. â€Å"I'll help them. I'll keep them safe and make sure nothing bad happens to them, okay?† Clarence still looked agitated but focused on Eddie hopefully. â€Å"You promise? You won't let them kill Tamara again?† â€Å"I promise,† said Eddie, in no way indicating how weird the request was. Clarence studied Eddie a few more seconds and then nodded. â€Å"You're a good boy.† He reached for the wine bottle and topped off his glass. â€Å"More?† he asked Adrian, as though nothing had happened. â€Å"Yes, please,† said Adrian, holding out his glass. We continued the conversation as though nothing had happened, but the shadow of Clarence's words continued to hang over me.

Deliberative Democracy Essay

To what extent is deliberative democracy an appropriate approach for resolving public policy problems? Definition of democracy. Deliberative approach as a type of democracy. Types of cases, when deliberative democracy is substituted by other types of democracy. The power of majority or the power of nation The power of minority or the power of representatives of interested parties The power of elite or power of professional politicians Deliberative forum as an important instrument of deliberative democracy. The deliberative democracy as continuation of traditions of former concepts in legal government. The deliberative democracy in works of Dewey, Cohen and Rippe. Cohen and his postulates of discourses. Habermas and his approach to deliberative democracy. Critical opinions regarding deliberative politics. Conclusion. Definition of democracy. We hear word â€Å"democracy† quite often in our everyday life. The main meaning of this word is easy to understand. But still, there are a lot of types of democracy. Let’s examine the most interesting kind of democracy – a deliberative democracy and find out, to what extent is deliberative democracy an appropriate approach for resolving public policy problems. Deliberative approach as a type of democracy. It is well known that democracy as a kind of organization of social-political life of the society is a preferable policy for any country. Still, we need to underline that democracy, as well as any other social-political system, is able to show it in different forms, depending on conditions. One of such forms is so-called deliberative democracy. It is such kind of â€Å"democracy, where citizens play the main role in political processes of society† (Barber Winter 1998-1999, p.588). Quite often it is called also a civil democracy. Actually, almost any nation in the world knows what it is, because such social-political system is quite ancient. Almost any nation had tradition of community, where they discussed problems and the ways how to solve these problems, as well as discussion and adoption of practical ways out. The role of citizen starts exactly from this point – from mutual discussion and action in politics within the limits of deliberative democracy. Such type of democracy supposes that a citizen is the effective political actor at the political scene of his country. It is also supposed that active citizen has a number of qualities, which are determined to define quality of his effectiveness. Such citizen has to be able to find out, to discuss and to feel responsibility for problems of his society and to be able to unite with other citizens in order to take decisions. It is also important to take into account all sides of political events, interests and values of other citizens and to find a common base to take effective and preferable decisions. Nevertheless, although such kind of democracy is very interesting, it is very difficult to develop and to maintain its vitality. Types of cases, when deliberative democracy is substituted by other types of democracy. One of the main conditions of existing of deliberative democracy is high level of political and legal competence of its citizens and their desire to participate in political process of their country. Deliberative democracy is changed into other types of problematical democracies when it is impossible to have such conditions. Let’s examine several types of such cases. a) The power of majority or the power of nation One of them is the power of majority or the power of nation. Such type of democracy is often called a direct majority system. The decisions are taken on the base of opinions of majority. The elements of such democracy are referendums, different kinds of Gallup polls and one-stage elections. As a result, process of politics becomes simpler and ability of society to solve difficult social problems is decreased. The power of minority or the power of representatives of interested parties The other kind of democracy is the power of minority or the power of representatives of interested parties. The main demand of this type of democracy, which is called a representative democracy, is that all layers of population have their representatives in the institutions of governing. The problem is that such kind of democracy often becomes anamorphous. In particular, separate groups, who have their interests, start to dominate in political system. As a result, politics, which is brought into society, becomes highly specialized and oriented on only those groups, whose representatives were able to lobby their interests at the governmental level. The power of elite or power of professional politicians Another type of democracy is the power of elite or power of professional politicians. Such type of democracy means that citizens â€Å"almost don’t take part in politics and become cynical in relation to political process† (Finley 1972, p.78). Such politics seems to be the matter of chosen (professionals and specialists) – politicians, managers of election campaigns, image-makers, lobbyists, sociologists, pressmen, etc. Technocratic approach makes this kind of democracy different and almost displaces the citizens from political scene. Deliberative forum as an important instrument of deliberative democracy. Deliberative democracy in comparison with these types of democracy is completely different. It brings into politics voices of citizens, which are ale to change something in political processes of their country. This voice is not associated with simple public opinion, defined by the Gallup polls, simple voting or protesting. Instruments, which help deliberative democracy to function in the modern society, are various. The â€Å"most important instrument of deliberative democracy is so-called deliberative forum† (Honig 1993, p.2). Such forum represents not a simple discussion of a problem, but strictly regulated discussion accordingly to a definite form. Before such forum takes place, its organizers – often it is a kind of initiative group from the number of active citizens – work out the form of problem’s discussion. Participants of this forum obey to the form of discussion with help of qualified moderators (people, who are responsible for the forum). The stages of forum are as follows: The participants share their experience of personal attitude regarding to the problem discussed. Moderator explains to the participants the essence of problem and gives three-four main approaches to solve it. He explains also possibilities to solve it practically, advantages and disadvantages of each approach as well. We have to note that approaches of variants of problem solving are prepared before the forum takes place and are made on the basis of dozens of small forums, Gallup polls, interviews with citizens, governmental authorities, different organizations and other parties, who are involved in problem, etc. The participants discuss approaches of problem solving and reach consensus basing on the most preferable position. It is also very important that participants of such a forum listen to discussions of their partners and can â€Å"change their opinion in the process of discussion† (Bohman 1997, p.343). The practice of such forum shows that situations, when participants of forum change their opinion and prefer other approach, represented by other working group, are quite often. It proves once more that deliberation (discussion) is very strong and important instrument of political influence on citizens and is very important in resolving political public problems. We need to note that deliberation is different from debates. Debates are based on principle that it is very important to prove your own opinion, your own point of view by proving ineffectiveness of your opponent’s opinion. Deliberation presupposes enrichment of your own opinion and gives possibility to reexamine it in the light of discussions and opinions of other participants. The participants work out practical actions for realization of chosen approach and decide when they have to meet the next time to continue chosen practical measures. Moderators make report on results of the forum and present the report to the parties which can be interested and which are able to influence resolving problem. Such report is presented to mass media as well. The deliberative democracy as continuation of traditions of former concepts in legal government. The deliberative democracy is opposed to the kinds of aforementioned democracies. It is also opposed to aggregative democracy, which reflects the results of compromises between the group interests. It is based not on the â€Å"balance of interests, but on the power of arguments for the sake of the good of all citizens† (Bohman, J. & Rehg 1997, p.IX). The public sphere is examined as the scene of wide discourse of citizens and reproduces the base for idea of public sovereignty. This civil reflection is not limited by any pre-determined principles. It acts only within the limits of known procedure rules. Actually, the deliberative process is used as the democracy, which allows discovering the sense of taken decisions and their consequences for society in common. Such concept represents a reaction on crisis condition of modern forms of Western democracy. The model of deliberative democracy seems to be idealistic and very interesting. Such concept arouses the question of organic interaction of society and government. It focuses attention on modification of public sphere as the important point of civil activity and influence of civil activity on the governmental politics as well. The deliberative democracy continues traditions of â€Å"former concepts of legal government and is examined as democracy of rational discourse, discussion, conviction, argumentation and compromise† (Connolly 1991, p.1). It is based on the statement that a modern human is a citizen, who takes active part in the life of society. His roles in society as a client and consumer are mixed together with roles of participant in political and public processes. The modern human has tendency to non-belonging to any political party, because he is ready to make compromise and to refuse from his preferences to reach compromise. When we use tradition of legal government conception (particularly, the conception of Kant), we suppose that governmental-legal sphere should be examined to the maximum flexibility. It should be possible to take into account any new theme of discussion, opinions and re-examination of results. First of all we need to solve such problems as role of majority, opinions of minority, parliamentary responsibility and corporatism. The deliberative democracy in works of Dewey, Cohen and Rippe. Deliberative democracy is a concept, used by J. Dewey, which is examined in the modern political theory by such authors as Cohen, Rippe, Habermas, etc. Dewey proposed to refuse from usual understanding of democracy as political domination of majority and to examine the process from the other side, as way to obtain power by the majority of citizens. It can be done with help of public discourses and lobbying interests by social groups and minorities in different discussions and forums. â€Å"The rule of majority is as stupid, as critics speak about it. Still, it had never been only the rule of majority†¦ The means with help of which the majority becomes the majority, – are much more important: debates, modification of opinions, discussions with minority, etc†¦ BY the other words, the efficient necessity of democracy is in improvement of methods and conditions of debates, discussions and forums†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Dewey 1954, p 207) So, the very concept of publicity of politics has more important results that the results of politics itself. The idea of deliberative democracy is based on intuition of publicity. It became an independent concept, which doesn’t understand the aim of politics to satisfy interests of all people separately as liberal doctrine. On the contrary, it is the model, oriented on forum, where â€Å"concepts about â€Å"good† for all people is discussed by means of mutual discussion of citizens† (Rippe 2001, p.141.). Cohen explains the method of constitution of the political society. He explains the concept of deliberative democracy by means of a definite ideal procedure of consultation and taking decisions in political institutions. â€Å"The concept of deliberative democracy is based on the intuitive ideal of democratic association, where the justification of rules and conditions of such association is made with help of public arguments and reflexion between the equal citizens. Deliberative politics stipulates that the parties should present grounds for their proposals, support or criticism†¦ The grounds should be presented clearly, and all participants can accept the proposal or refuse from it, presenting their critical points of view by means of free discussion between the equal† (Cohen 1989, p.25) Cohen and his postulates of discourses. In such a way, we can define a number of discourses, which are examined as political function and are able to constitute political public society. Cohen speaks about several postulates of such procedures: Such consultations should be made in argumentative form, i.e. by means of well-ordered information between the parties; Consultations should be open and public. Nobody can be excluded from the number of participants; Consultations are free and nobody can force the partner to accept a proposal, except by force of arguments; Consultations have the aim of rationally motivated agreement and can continue as long as possible. Still, the majority can take decision to stop them temporarily; Political consultations first of all should be the subject of discussion of problems, which are the most important and interesting; Political consultations also can be used for â€Å"interpretation of demands and pre-political postulates† (Cohen 1989, p.22). They shouldn’t be limited by valuable consensus, based on common tradition and practice. Habermas and his approach to deliberative democracy. We can see that postulates of deliberative democracy are, actually, the reflexion of discourse theory into politics. So, it is no wonder that the concept of deliberative politics was accepted by Habermas and examined in his book â€Å"Faktizità ¤t und Geltung†, basing on the concepts of discourse theory (Habermas 1998, p.35). Habermas examines new concept of civil society, taking closer concepts of civil society and political public. He retains world orientation, which is resulted on liberal political culture. At the same time he focuses attention on forms of communication, organization and institutionalization of people in communities, where they form opinions, ideas, ideals, motives, values and orientations of different kind. Such conception allows forming new civil society, – â€Å"plural, effective and responsible†. Habermas tries to find the principles and values of new civil society in many-sided communication of individuals, groups, countries and regions. We can find also the motive of ambivalent attitude (inheritance and refusal at the same time) to Utopian tradition of modern as consensus of free individuals being the basis of righteous civil order, and with institutional problems of real capitalism. Habermas examines ideals of bourgeois humanism, such as self-organization, rational forming of political will, personal and collective self-determination, self-organization of society – at the background of cynical reality of the modern society. He changes the conceptual pair ideal-reality by the search of potential of rationality in everyday communicative practice. The last one is the basis of ideas, which finds expression in ideals of classical philosophy and continues to be important nowadays. He examines the concept of â€Å"public opinion† as formal structure of communication and presupposition of possibility to reach consensus. What are the ways to form political consensus, which is important for society self-organization? The model of deliberative democracy, supported by Habermas, supposes the ideal of society, consisting of free and equal individuals, who determine forms of mutual life in political communication. The concept of discussion and procedure of political problems and taking decisions is taken as criteria of democracy of the real political process. The procedure of forming opinions and will of the nation should be understood as democratic self-organization. The decision, which is supported by the majority of citizens, should be understood as the legal. Political communication should rationally form the will of participants. The problem of relations between the government and civil society should be examined through the prism of liberal and republican political traditions. The concept of society as a political value (societas civilis) equalizes democracy with political self-organization of society as the one body. It is based on republican tradition, which supports the ideas of Aristotle and Rousseau. The government as bureaucratic administrative mechanism should become a part of society as a whole. Deliberative democracy is not a simple power of citizens’ opinions. It is rather the possibility of power of reason, which is a result of citizens’ discussions. Coordination of plans of activity among the citizens supposes the constant standards of behavior, which stipulate and stabilize mutual social expectations. Stabilization of social character is executed thanks to mutual participation of citizens as well as communication, which coordinates activity of individuals. The aim of communication is to reach consensus. Critical opinions regarding deliberative politics. Still, there are some critical opinions regarding deliberative democracy. Let’s examine some of them. Critics write that the discussions can focus attention on different problems, which are found in the process of discussions. Those problems can influence on â€Å"positive taking decisions, because they can worsen situation by arousing different disagreements† (Held 1995, p.92). Even if the discussion helps to reach agreement, sometimes there are cases when such agreement is undesirable. People are able to get satisfaction from feeling of their â€Å"unevenness† and â€Å"difference†. And, on the contrary, they can think that consensus can lead to mediocrity. Such participants of discussion can understand the competition of ideas – dispute – to be vitally important for their personal freedom. Such institutional embodiments of thought lay on the basis of different attributes of democracy. So, we can resume, that the discussion not always leads to consensus. Also, when a discussion leads to consensus, it is not always can be examined as the advantage. The deliberative approach is criticized also because its aim is based on optimistic pre-suppositions regarding the government. Nevertheless, any theory has its weak points. Conclusion At the same time deliberative model of society focuses attention on personal rights of citizens, the principle of equality and practice of government. The ability to actualize those rights can be understood as ability to be a citizen in such deliberative society. Sharing position of Habermas, we can suppose that democratic society prepares the establishment of status of a liberal citizen. Such kind of participation in political processes of society is very important and actual in forming of â€Å"conscious† citizen and gives him possibility to participate in taking politically important decision and resolving public problems. In such a way, deliberative democracy presupposes education of responsible citizen, able to estimate difficulty of problems. Such citizen is able to accept legal interests of other interested groups (including traditional opponents). Principle of deliberative democracy generates the feeling of united nation and can be called an appropriate approach for resolving public policy problems. Works Cited: Barber, B. (Winter 1998-1999). Three Scenarios for the Future of Technology and Strong Democracy, â€Å"Political Science Quarterly†,vol. 113, â„â€"4 Bohman, J. (1997). â€Å"Deliberative Democracy and Effective Social Freedom: Capabilities, Resources, and Opportunities† in Deliberative Democrac, Essays on Reason and Politics, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts-London Bohman, J. & Rehg, W. (1997). (ed.) Deliberative Democracy, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massach.-London, England Cohen, J. (1989). Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy, Hablin A., Pettit B. (Hrsg.), The Good Polity, Oxford Connolly, W. (1991). Identity / Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox, N.Y. Dewey, J. (1954). The Public and its Problems, Chicago Finley, M. (1972). Democracy, Ancient and Modern. New Brunswick Habermas, J. (1998). Faktizità ¤t und Geltung, Frankfurt a.M. Held, D. (1995). Democracy and the Global Order, From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance, Cambridge, Great Britain Honig, Ð’. (1993). Political Theory and the Displacement of Politics, N.Y. Rippe, K.-P. (2001). Ethikkommissionen in der deliberativen Demokratie, Kettner M. (Hrsg.), Angewandte Ethik als Politikum. Frankfurt